Power Semiconductor Devices - Overview

• Electronic switches used in power electronic circuits

• Control and convert electrical power efficiently

• Operate at high voltage and current levels

• Key parameters: Voltage rating, Current rating, Switching speed, Power losses

Classification:

• Uncontrolled: Power Diodes

• Semi-controlled: Thyristors (SCR, TRIAC)

• Fully controlled: MOSFET, IGBT, GTO, BJT

Important Ratings:

• Peak Forward/Reverse Voltage, Average/RMS Current

• \(dI/dt\) and \(dV/dt\) ratings, Safe Operating Area (SOA)

Power Diodes - Detailed Analysis

Types:

• PN Junction Diodes: General purpose, \(V_f \approx 0.7V\)

• Schottky Diodes: Fast switching, \(V_f \approx 0.3V\), low \(t_{rr}\)

• Fast Recovery Diodes: Optimized for \(t_{rr} < 500ns\)

Key Parameters:

• Forward voltage drop: \(V_f\)

• Reverse recovery time: \(t_{rr} = t_s + t_f\) (storage + fall time)

• Reverse recovery charge: \(Q_{rr} = \frac{1}{2} \times I_{RRM} \times t_{rr}\)

• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) rating

• Surge current rating: \(I_{FSM}\)

Reverse Recovery Process:

• Storage time: \(t_s\) (charge removal)

• Fall time: \(t_f\) (current decay)

• Softness factor: \(S = \frac{t_f}{t_s}\) (ideal: 0.5-1.0)

Diode Losses and Thermal Design

Power Losses:

• Conduction Loss: \(P_{cond} = V_f \times I_{avg}\)

• Switching Loss: \(P_{sw} = \frac{1}{2} \times V_R \times I_{RRM} \times t_{rr} \times f\)

• Leakage Loss: \(P_{leak} = V_R \times I_R\) (reverse bias)

Series/Parallel Operation:

• Series: Voltage sharing resistors needed

• Parallel: Current sharing inductors recommended

Thermal Considerations:

• Junction temperature: \(T_j = T_a + P_{loss} \times R_{th(j-a)}\)

• Thermal time constant: \(\tau = R_{th} \times C_{th}\)

• Derating factor typically 2-3 for safety

SCR - Extended Characteristics

Two-Transistor Model:

• SCR = PNP + NPN transistors

• Turn-on condition: \(\alpha_1 + \alpha_2 \geq 1\)

• \(\alpha\) increases with current and temperature

Critical Parameters:

• Latching current: \(I_L\) (minimum to maintain conduction)

• Holding current: \(I_H\) (minimum to stay ON) - typically \(I_H < I_L\)

• Critical rate of rise: \(dV/dt\) (max without false triggering)

• Critical rate of current rise: \(dI/dt\) (max during turn-on)

• Circuit fusing: \(I^2t\) rating

Turn-off Process:

• Circuit turn-off time: \(t_q\) (time for \(I_A = 0\))

• Reverse recovery charge removal

• Gate recovery time: \(t_{gr}\)

SCR - Commutation Techniques

Natural Commutation:

• AC supply naturally reverses current

• Used in: Phase-controlled rectifiers, AC voltage controllers

Forced Commutation:

• Self-commutation: LC resonant circuit

• Impulse commutation: Capacitor discharge

• Complementary commutation: Auxiliary SCR

• Load commutation: Load current reversal

Commutation Circuit Design:

• Commutation capacitor: \(C = \frac{I_L \times t_q}{V_C}\)

• Commutation inductor: \(L = \frac{V_C \times t_q}{I_L}\)

• Circuit turn-off time: \(t_c > t_q\) (safety margin)

Thyristor Family - Extended

TRIAC (Triode AC Switch):

• Bidirectional SCR, MT1, MT2, Gate terminals

• Four quadrant operation modes

• Quadrant I: MT2(+), G(+); Quadrant III: MT2(-), G(-)

• dV/dt and dI/dt ratings critical

GTO (Gate Turn-Off Thyristor):

• Turn-off gain: \(\beta_{off} = \frac{I_A}{I_G}\) (typically 3-5)

• Negative gate current for turn-off: \(I_G = -\frac{I_A}{\beta_{off}}\)

• Tail current during turn-off

• Snubber circuits essential

DIAC & Other Devices:

• DIAC: Bidirectional breakover, \(V_{BO} \approx 30V\)

• LASCR: Light-activated SCR

• RCT: Reverse Conducting Thyristor

Power BJTs - Characteristics

Structure & Operation:

• Current-controlled device: \(I_C = \beta \times I_B\)

• Darlington configuration for high current gain

• Triple-diffused structure for high voltage rating

Key Parameters:

• Current gain: \(\beta = \frac{I_C}{I_B}\) (decreases with current)

• Saturation voltage: \(V_{CE(sat)}\) (typically 1-2V)

• Base-emitter voltage: \(V_{BE}\) (0.7V for Si)

• Safe Operating Area (SOA): Forward bias and Reverse bias

Switching Characteristics:

• Turn-on time: \(t_{on} = t_d + t_r\) (delay + rise time)

• Turn-off time: \(t_{off} = t_s + t_f\) (storage + fall time)

• Storage time depends on base overdrive factor

BJT - Drive Circuits & Second Breakdown

Base Drive Requirements:

• Base current: \(I_B = \frac{I_C}{\beta}\) (plus overdrive)

• Turn-on: Positive base current pulse

• Turn-off: Negative base current (speed-up capacitor)

• Base drive power: \(P_B = V_{BE} \times I_B\)

Second Breakdown:

• Thermal instability leading to device failure

• Current concentration in hot spots

• Forward bias SOA limited by second breakdown

• Reverse bias SOA limited by avalanche breakdown

Protection & Snubbers:

• RC snubber across collector-emitter

• Base-emitter clamp diode

• Current limiting in base drive

Power MOSFETs - Enhanced Analysis

Structure Types:

• Vertical MOSFET (VMOS): High voltage, low \(R_{DS(on)}\)

• Double-diffused MOS (DMOS): Most common structure

• Trench MOSFET: Lower \(R_{DS(on)}\), higher gate charge

Body Diode:

• Inherent antiparallel diode (source to drain)

• Forward voltage: \(V_{SD} \approx 0.7V\)

• Reverse recovery time: \(t_{rr}\) (important in switching)

• Used as freewheeling diode in some applications

Temperature Effects:

• \(V_{th}\) has negative temperature coefficient

• \(R_{DS(on)}\) increases with temperature (positive coefficient)

• Thermal runaway not possible (unlike BJT)

MOSFET - Capacitances & Switching

Parasitic Capacitances:

• Gate-source capacitance: \(C_{gs}\) (constant)

• Gate-drain capacitance: \(C_{gd}\) (Miller capacitance, voltage-dependent)

• Drain-source capacitance: \(C_{ds}\) (junction capacitance)

• Input capacitance: \(C_{iss} = C_{gs} + C_{gd}\)

• Output capacitance: \(C_{oss} = C_{ds} + C_{gd}\)

Switching Analysis:

• Gate charge: \(Q_g = Q_{gs} + Q_{gd}\) (total charge to turn on)

• Miller charge: \(Q_{gd}\) (causes plateau in \(V_{gs}\))

• Switching energy: \(E_{sw} = \frac{1}{2} \times V_{DS} \times I_D \times t_{sw}\)

• Gate drive current: \(I_g = \frac{Q_g}{t_{sw}}\)

Parallel Operation:

• Positive temperature coefficient helps current sharing

• Gate resistors for oscillation prevention

IGBT - Structure & Advanced Characteristics

Structure Types:

• Punch-Through (PT): Lower \(V_{CE(sat)}\), faster switching

• Non-Punch-Through (NPT): Higher ruggedness, slower switching

• Trench Gate: Lower \(V_{CE(sat)}\), higher transconductance

Equivalent Circuit:

• MOSFET driving a PNP transistor

• Parasitic NPN transistor (latch-up concern)

• Collector-emitter diode (antiparallel)

Latch-up Phenomenon:

• Parasitic thyristor formation (PNPN)

• Triggered by high \(dI/dt\) or overcurrent

• Prevention: Optimized base resistance, \(dI/dt\) control

Current Tailing:

• Stored charge in drift region

• Causes turn-off losses

• Dependent on collector current and temperature

IGBT - Gate Drive & Protection

Gate Drive Design:

• Turn-on gate voltage: \(+15V\) (typical)

• Turn-off gate voltage: \(-8V\) to \(-15V\) (noise immunity)

• Gate resistor: \(R_g\) (controls \(dI/dt\), \(dV/dt\))

• Miller clamp for reduced switching losses

Protection Schemes:

• Desaturation Protection: \(V_{CE}\) monitoring for overcurrent

• Short Circuit Protection: Current limiting, soft turn-off

• Under-voltage Lockout (UVLO): Gate drive supply monitoring

• Active Clamping: \(dV/dt\) control during turn-off

Soft Switching Techniques:

• Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS)

• Zero Current Switching (ZCS)

• Resonant gate drive

Power Device Comparison - Comprehensive

Selection Criteria & Applications

Application-wise Selection:

• Rectifiers: Diodes (uncontrolled), SCR (controlled)

• Inverters: IGBT (medium power), MOSFET (high frequency)

• Choppers: MOSFET (high freq), IGBT (high power)

• Motor Drives: IGBT (preferred), MOSFET (small motors)

Power vs Frequency Trade-off:

• High Power + Low Frequency: SCR, GTO

• Medium Power + Medium Frequency: IGBT, BJT

• Low Power + High Frequency: MOSFET

Cost Considerations:

• Device cost: Diode \(<\) SCR \(<\) MOSFET \(<\) BJT \(<\) IGBT

• Drive circuit cost: SCR \(<\) MOSFET \(<\) IGBT \(<\) BJT

• Total system cost depends on application

Snubber Circuits - Design & Analysis

Purpose:

• Limit \(dV/dt\) and \(dI/dt\) during switching

• Reduce switching losses and EMI

• Prevent device failure due to excessive stress

Types of Snubbers:

• RC Snubber: Limits \(dV/dt\) - \(R = \sqrt{\frac{L}{C}}\), \(C = \frac{I \times dt}{dV}\)

• RCD Snubber: Energy recovery type

• LC Snubber: Limits \(dI/dt\) - \(L = \frac{V \times dt}{dI}\)

• RLC Snubber: Combined protection

Design Equations:

• Snubber capacitor: \(C = \frac{I_L \times t_{off}}{V_{DC}}\)

• Snubber resistor: \(R = \frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{L}{C}}\) (critical damping)

• Energy dissipated: \(E = \frac{1}{2} \times C \times V^2\) per switching cycle

Thermal Design & Heat Sinks

Thermal Equivalent Circuit:

• Junction to case: \(R_{th(j-c)}\) (device parameter)

• Case to heat sink: \(R_{th(c-h)}\) (interface material)

• Heat sink to ambient: \(R_{th(h-a)}\) (heat sink design)

• Total: \(R_{th(j-a)} = R_{th(j-c)} + R_{th(c-h)} + R_{th(h-a)}\)

Junction Temperature:

• Steady state: \(T_j = T_a + P_{loss} \times R_{th(j-a)}\)

• Transient: \(T_j(t) = T_a + P_{loss} \times R_{th} \times (1 - e^{-t/\tau})\)

• Thermal time constant: \(\tau = R_{th} \times C_{th}\)

Heat Sink Design:

• Required thermal resistance: \(R_{th(h-a)} = \frac{T_{j(max)} - T_a}{P_{loss}} - R_{th(j-c)} - R_{th(c-h)}\)

• Forced air cooling: \(R_{th} \propto \frac{1}{\sqrt{velocity}}\)

• Heat sink surface area: \(A = \frac{P_{loss}}{h \times \Delta T}\)

Key Formulas for GATE - Part I

Power Losses:

• Conduction Loss: \(P_{cond} = I_{avg}^2 \times R_{on} + V_{sat} \times I_{avg}\)

• Switching Loss: \(P_{sw} = \frac{1}{2} \times V \times I \times (t_{on} + t_{off}) \times f\)

• Total Loss: \(P_{total} = P_{cond} + P_{sw} + P_{gate}\)

MOSFET Specific:

• Drain Current: \(I_D = K(V_{GS} - V_{th})^2\) (saturation region)

• Transconductance: \(g_m = \frac{\partial I_D}{\partial V_{GS}} = 2K(V_{GS} - V_{th})\)

• Gate charge: \(Q_g = C_{gs} \times V_{GS} + C_{gd} \times V_{DS}\)

SCR Specific:

• Two-transistor model: \(\alpha_1 + \alpha_2 = 1\) (turn-on condition)

• Gate trigger power: \(P_G = V_{GT} \times I_{GT}\)

• Commutation: \(t_c = \pi \sqrt{LC}\) (for LC commutation)

Key Formulas for GATE - Part II

Thermal Design:

• Junction Temperature: \(T_j = T_a + P_{loss} \times R_{th(j-a)}\)

• Thermal resistance: \(R_{th} = \frac{\Delta T}{P_{loss}}\)

• Transient thermal impedance: \(Z_{th}(t) = R_{th} \times (1 - e^{-t/\tau})\)

Snubber Design:

• RC snubber: \(R = \sqrt{\frac{L}{C}}\), \(C = \frac{I \times dt}{dV}\)

• Energy per cycle: \(E = \frac{1}{2} \times C \times V^2\)

• Power dissipation: \(P_R = E \times f = \frac{1}{2} \times C \times V^2 \times f\)

Safe Operating Area:

• Power limit: \(P_{max} = V_{DS} \times I_D \leq P_{rated}\)

• Thermal limit: \(I_{max} = \frac{T_{j(max)} - T_a}{R_{th(j-a)} \times V_{DS}}\)

GATE Important Concepts

Frequently Asked Topics:

• Device characteristics and V-I curves

• Switching waveforms and timing diagrams

• Commutation circuits for SCR

• Snubber circuit design and analysis

• Thermal management calculations

Problem-solving Approach:

• Identify device type and operating conditions

• Apply appropriate equivalent circuit

• Use device ratings and parameters

• Calculate losses and efficiency

• Verify thermal and electrical stress limits

Common GATE Questions:

• SCR firing angle and commutation analysis

• MOSFET/IGBT switching loss calculations

• Device selection for specific applications

• Snubber component value determination

Summary - Power Semiconductor Devices

Key Points for GATE:

• Understand device physics and equivalent circuits

• Master switching characteristics and timing

• Learn application-specific advantages/limitations

• Practice numerical problems on losses and thermal design

Device Selection Strategy:

• Match device ratings to application requirements

• Consider switching frequency and power level

• Evaluate drive circuit complexity and cost

• Account for thermal management requirements

Essential Formulas to Remember:

• Power loss calculations for all devices

• Thermal resistance and junction temperature

• Switching time relationships

• Snubber design equations