Electron beam deflected by electric field

X-axis: Time base (horizontal deflection)

Y-axis: Signal amplitude (vertical deflection)

Phosphor screen displays waveform

Persistence of vision creates continuous display

Deflection factor: \(D = \frac{V_d}{V_s}\) (V/cm)

Electron Gun: Cathode, control grid, focusing anode

Deflection System: Vertical and horizontal plates

Phosphor Screen: Converts electron energy to light

Vertical Amplifier: Amplifies input signal

Horizontal Amplifier: Time base generator

Power Supply: High voltage for CRT operation

Graticule: Calibrated scale for measurements

Cathode: Emits electrons when heated (thermionic emission)

Control Grid: Controls electron beam intensity (brightness)

Pre-accelerating Anode: Accelerates electrons (A1)

Focusing Anode: Focuses electron beam (A2)

Accelerating Anode: Final acceleration 1000-4000V (A3)

Aquadag coating: Provides uniform potential

Vertical Deflection: Y-plates, signal amplitude

Horizontal Deflection: X-plates, time base

Electrostatic Deflection: Used in CRO

Magnetic Deflection: Used in TV tubes

Deflection sensitivity: \(S = \dfrac{l \cdot L}{2 \cdot d \cdot V_a}\)

Deflection factor: \(G = \frac{1}{S}\) (V/cm)

Phosphor types: P1 (green), P2 (blue-green), P7 (blue)

Persistence: Time for brightness to decay to 10%

Short persistence: Fast transients (P2)

Long persistence: Slow phenomena (P7)

Luminescence: Light emission during electron bombardment

Phosphorescence: Light emission after excitation stops

Storage and recall capability

Digital processing and analysis

Automatic measurements

Computer interface (USB, Ethernet)

Better accuracy and stability

No phosphor burning

Portable and lightweight

Pre-trigger capture capability

Input Attenuator: Signal conditioning

Sample and Hold: Captures instantaneous values

ADC: Analog to Digital Converter (8-12 bits)

Memory: Stores digital samples (acquisition memory)

Microprocessor: Controls operations

Display: LCD/LED screen

Trigger circuit: Digital triggering

Real-time Sampling: High sampling rate (single-shot)

Equivalent-time Sampling: For repetitive signals

Random Sampling: For non-repetitive signals

Nyquist Theorem: \(f_s \geq 2f_{max}\)

Aliasing: Sampling rate too low, causes false frequencies

Interpolation: Sin(x)/x or linear reconstruction

Record length: Number of samples stored

Memory depth: Total storage capacity

Acquisition modes: Sample, Peak detect, Average

Waveform math: Add, subtract, multiply, FFT

Persistence display: Overlapping waveforms

Zoom function: Time base expansion

Time between two identical points on waveform

\(T = \dfrac{\text{No. of divisions} \times \text{Time/division}}{1}\)

Frequency: \(f = \dfrac{1}{T}\)

Phase difference: \(\phi = \dfrac{\Delta t}{T} \times 360^{\circ}\)

Rise time: 10% to 90% of final value

Fall time: 90% to 10% of final value

Propagation delay: Signal travel time

Provides horizontal deflection voltage

Sawtooth waveform for linear sweep

Triggered sweep for stable display

Time/division control (1 sec/div to 1 ns/div)

Sweep rates: \(1 \mathrm{sec/div}\) to \(1 \mathrm{\mu s/div}\)

External trigger capability

Delayed sweep: Magnified time base

Auto Trigger: Automatic triggering

Normal Trigger: Manual trigger level

Single Trigger: One-shot display

Edge Trigger: Rising/falling edge

Level Trigger: Specific voltage level

Slope: Positive or negative

Trigger holdoff: Prevents multiple triggers

Using time period: \(f = \dfrac{1}{T}\)

Count cycles in known time

Electronic counter method

Gate time selection important

Accuracy depends on crystal oscillator

Resolution: \(\Delta f = \dfrac{1}{\text{Gate time}}\)

Prescaler: For high frequency division

X-Y mode operation

Two sinusoidal signals applied

Frequency ratio determination

\(\dfrac{f_x}{f_y} = \dfrac{\text{Vertical\ tangencies}}{\text{Horizontal\ tangencies}}\)

Phase difference measurement: \(\sin \phi = \frac{a}{b}\)

Stable patterns for integer ratios

Circle: Same frequency, 90° phase difference

Input Signal Conditioning: Amplification, filtering

Schmitt Trigger: Converts to digital pulses

Gate Circuit: Controls counting time

Counter: Counts pulses (BCD counters)

Display: Shows frequency value (7-segment)

Time Base: Crystal oscillator reference (10 MHz)

Decade dividers: Generate gate times

Bandwidth: Maximum frequency response (-3dB point)

Rise Time: \(t_r = \dfrac{0.35}{BW}\) (10-90% rise time)

Sensitivity: Minimum detectable signal (mV/div)

Accuracy: Measurement precision (±2% typical)

Input Impedance: Typically \(1~\mathrm{M \Omega} || 20~\mathrm{pF}\)

Sampling Rate: For DSO (MSa/s, GSa/s)

Vertical resolution: ADC bits (8-12 bits)

1:1 Probe: Direct connection, low frequency

10:1 Probe: Reduces loading, high frequency

100:1 Probe: High voltage measurements

Current Probes: Measure current without breaking circuit

Differential Probes: Common mode rejection

Probe Compensation: Square wave calibration (1 kHz)

Probe loading: \(R_{probe} || C_{probe}\)

Pulse width: Time between 50% points

Duty cycle: \(D = \frac{t_{on}}{T} \times 100\%\)

Rise time: 10% to 90% of amplitude

Fall time: 90% to 10% of amplitude

Overshoot: Percentage above final value

Undershoot: Percentage below final value

Preshoot: Distortion before main pulse

Peak-to-peak voltage: \(V_{pp}\)

RMS value: \(V_{rms} = \frac{V_{pp}}{2\sqrt{2}}\) (sine wave)

Average value: \(V_{avg} = \frac{2V_{peak}}{\pi}\) (sine wave)

Crest factor: \(CF = \frac{V_{peak}}{V_{rms}}\)

Form factor: \(FF = \frac{V_{rms}}{V_{avg}}\)

Distortion factor: THD measurement

Logic states: High/Low levels

Setup time: Data stable before clock edge

Hold time: Data stable after clock edge

Propagation delay: Input to output delay

Timing violations: Setup/hold violations

Eye diagram: Data quality assessment

Jitter measurement: Timing variations

Combines analog and digital channels

Typically 2-4 analog + 16 digital channels

Synchronized sampling of both domains

Protocol analysis capability

Logic analyzer functionality

Trigger on digital patterns

Applications: Microcontroller debugging

Very high bandwidth (>50 GHz)

Sequential sampling technique

Requires repetitive signals

Lower real-time sampling rate

Equivalent time sampling: Builds waveform over multiple cycles

Applications: High-speed digital, RF signals

Limitation: Cannot capture single-shot events

USB/PCI/Ethernet interface

Uses computer display and processing

Cost-effective solution

Software-based analysis

Advantages: Portability, upgradability

Disadvantages: Limited real-time performance

Applications: Education, field service

Input impedance: \(R_{in} || C_{in}\)

Loading error: Due to finite input impedance

Frequency response: Affected by input capacitance

Probe compensation: Minimizes loading

High impedance rule: \(R_{source} << R_{input}\)

Bandwidth limitation: Signal distortion

Bandwidth limitation: Signal distortion

Probe loading: Circuit modification

Ground loops: Noise pickup

Trigger jitter: Unstable display

Quantization noise: ADC limitation (DSO)

Aliasing: Insufficient sampling rate

Interpolation errors: Waveform reconstruction

Voltage: Peak, RMS, average values

Time: Period, frequency, phase

Waveform Analysis: Shape, distortion

Transient Response: Step response

Pulse Measurements: Width, duty cycle

Frequency Response: Bode plots

Harmonic analysis: FFT spectrum

Digital Signal Analysis: Logic states, timing

Modulation Analysis: AM, FM, PM

Power Measurements: VI products, power factor

Spectrum Analysis: FFT capability

Protocol Analysis: Serial communication (SPI, I2C)

Automotive: CAN, LIN bus analysis

EMI/EMC testing: Electromagnetic compatibility

Deflection sensitivity: \(S = \frac{l \cdot L}{2 \cdot d \cdot V_a}\)

Deflection factor: \(G = \frac{1}{S}\)

Bandwidth-rise time: \(BW = \frac{0.35}{t_r}\)

Sampling theorem: \(f_s \geq 2f_{max}\)

Phase from Lissajous: \(\sin \phi = \frac{a}{b}\)

Resolution: \(\Delta f = \frac{1}{\text{Gate time}}\)

CRO vs DSO comparison

Sampling theorem and aliasing

Probe compensation necessity

Bandwidth-rise time relationship

Lissajous pattern analysis

Triggering modes and applications

Time base generator operation

Frequency measurement methods

Loading effects and probe selection

Deflection sensitivity calculations

Probe attenuation effects

Sampling rate requirements

Frequency ratio from Lissajous patterns

Rise time from bandwidth

Phase measurement techniques

Counter gate time selection

Oscilloscope loading effects

Aliasing frequency calculation

Given bandwidth, find rise time

Calculate deflection sensitivity

Determine sampling rate to avoid aliasing

Phase difference from time delay

Frequency resolution from gate time

Probe compensation calculations

Loading effect on measurement

Lissajous pattern frequency ratio

Oscilloscopes: Essential measurement instruments

CRO: Analog, real-time display

DSO: Digital, storage capability

Time measurement: Period, frequency, phase

Frequency measurement: Direct and indirect methods

Proper probe selection crucial

Understanding specifications important

Loading effects must be considered